Assigned Reading from Text:  Chapter 4.  [all of the chapter is assigned].

Sample Essay Questions:

    a.  Briefly define and explain two types of test bias.  For each of these two types of bias, give two concrete examples of this type of bias.  For each of these (four) examples, discuss how this specific example could be corrected.

    b.  Briefly describe the research demonstrating one gender difference in some personality characteristic.  Give an example from real life of this difference.  What does the evidence from the research suggest in terms of the "cause" of this difference?  Discuss at least one implication of this differece for female-male relationships and interactions between the sexes.

    c.  Briefly describe an example of cross-cultural research on some personality characteristic.  How could an emic approach be used to improve this research?

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A.  Defining test bias.  The term "bias" is a technical term in psychology.  Types of bias include:
 
    a.  Use of the wrong norms.
    b.  Using inappropriate questions or items on a scale.
 
B.  Looking at personality differences among groups
    a.  All individuals are unique and belong to many different groups
    b.  Generalizations about groups are stereotypes and should not be improperly applied.

C.  Comparing females and males on personality characteristics
    a.  When we compare the sexes, we are not comparing biological beings (sex), but males and females as they are socialized in our society (gender).
    b.  Differences can result from differential socialization or biological factors.
        1.  Do we sociailize males and females differently?
        2.  What are some of the biological differences?  Testosterone and other sex hormones.

D.  Gender differences on standardized personality scales
    a.  We almost always find statistically significant differences.
    b.  Some of these differences are quite reliable, but others do not replicate.
    c.  Most often found differences relate to individuality and social connectedness.
        1.  Males rate themselves higher on achievement, independence, and success in competition.
        2.  Females rate themselves higher in intimacy desires, friendliness, nurturance and lower on dominance and aggression.
    d.  Other trait differences associated with gender
        1.  Altruism or helping.  Depends on how it is operationalized.
        2.  Empathy.  Depends on measurement.
        3.  Expression of emotion.  How do we define the concept of "emotion"?
        4. Conformity.  Probably more related to status and knowledge than gender.
        5.  Intellectual abilities--mathematical and verbal skills.

E.  Comparing racial groups on personality characterisitcs.
    a.  Much less done than on gender differences.  Why?
    b.  Majority of work focusses on African Americans as compared to European Americans.  Are these clearly defined groups?
        1.  Several studies have shown African Americans less well adjusted.  Why?
        2.  Another result showing up in several studies is that African Americans are lower in personal efficacy.
        3.  No differences or African American children higher in self esteem.
    c.  Some research on Hispanics compared to Anglos.  Are these clearly defined groups?
        1.  Hispanics sometimes found to be more defensive, conforming, and alienated.  Why?
        2.  An important issue here is level of acculturation.
    d.  Research on Asian Americans is even more complex because of the wide variety of cultures and levels of acculturation.  Sometimes found to be less assertive and more modest.

F.  Issues in looking at group differences.  All issues relevant to gender differences apply to other types of group difference studies.
    a.  Many differences found. Do not always replicate.
    b.  Finding a difference says nothing about what causes this difference.
    c.  Race and ethnicity are not simple categories.

G.  What about cross-cultural research?  Another form of group difference study.
    a.  Much cross-cultural research done.
    b.  Etic approach involves using universally valid measures.
    c.  Emic approach involves using measures developed specifically for the culture being assessed.
    d.  Pros and cons to each approach.