The Failure of Enlightened Absolutism and the Partitions of

Poland-Lithuania

I. Enlightenment and Absolutism

            Success/survival vs. failure/demise

Russia, Prussia, Austria vs. Poland-Lithuania

II.55 Nobility’s Golden Freedoms as obstacles to absolutism

• Royal elections
• Confederations
• Diets every 2 years to approve new taxes and military mobilization
• Liberum veto as of 1650s

Reasons for this state’s nobility’s long-term power and failure of powerful monarchy?

Union of 2 states led to fears that centralization could lead to dominance of Poles over Lithuanians or vice-versa. Thus consensus to oppose centralism.

Lack of effective central power could lead to abuse especially by foreign powers.

III. Decline of Polish Power 16-18^th Centuries

A.        From 16^th century

• Multicultural multireligious population
• Tolerance toward religious diversity
• Uniate religion founded in 1596-97—compromise between Orthodoxy and Catholicism—aimed at East Slavic populations in the eastern areas of Poland-Lithuania: Ukrainians and Byelorussians who were receptive to Muscovite influence because of Orthodoxy

B.        To 17^th century

• “time of troubles” first for Russia and then for Poland. Both have to deal with Swedes, Tatars and Cossacks
• Poland and Sweden try to partition Russia
• Poland attempts to take Russian throne, but fails. Native Russian Romanov dynasty established 1613. It lasts till 1917.

1. Cossacks: runaway serfs from both Russian and Polish landlords. They set up egalitarian warrior society in borderlands (Ukraine). They fight Tatars and Ottoman Empire. Used by Poland as fighting force in its own defense. Cossacks demanded noble status but Poles refused.

• 1647-67 Bogdan Chmelnicki (Bohdan Khmelnytsky) led war of Ukrainian independence during which violence against Polish landlords and massacres of Jews.

• Jewish migration westward from this point on
• 1654 treaty between Cossacks and Russia: Cossacks’ allegiance to Russia
• 1654-1667 “Deluge” period of Polish history with Swedes, Turks, Russians, Cossacks attacking
• 1667 Treaty of Andrussovo between Russia and Poland divides Ukraine along Dnieper River
• Cossack republic survives until 1764 when Catherine the Great takes it over

IV. Consequences of Wars and turmoil

• Population decline (by ¼ from 1648-1660).
• Decline of grain trade
• Decline of towns and port cities. Urban population down by 60-70%

A.        Fiscal and military decline

• revenues remained stationary since 14^th century
• By 1700 state revenues down to 3 % of those of France, 1/8 of Habsburg
• taxes per capita much lower than European average
• 5-6 times fewer soldiers than European average:

Polish army to Prussian army     1:11

Polish army to Austrian army 1: 17

Polish army to Russian army 1:28

V.  Culture of the nobility: Sarmatism

• 17^th century development
• conservative rural, anti-urban, anti-intellectual ideology
• saw Poland as Europe’s granary & Christian shield against Turks & Tatars
• Poland could learn nothing from West
• xenophobic

VII. 18^th Century Foreign Interference & Partial Recovery

• Demographic and economic recovery begins

A. The Polish Enlightenment

• Critics of liberum veto
• Critics of Sarmatism
• Proponents of strong monarchy
• Proposals of new forms of republicanism
• Education reform: introduce foreign languages and science
• 1748 first public library in Europe in Warsaw
• some nobles abolished serfdom on own estates
• Warsaw grew to 125,000 in 18^th century
• First industries used serf labor, others begin to use hired labor: coal, mining, textiles develops

B.        Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski—last king of Poland (1764-1795) elected in            Russian “supervised” election. Controversial figure who did undertake reforms           but too late

• Encourages press, theatre
• New secular school for nobility
• Limits liberum veto
• Seignerial courts forbidden to pass death sentence

C. Russian Interference

• Russia involved in elections of compliant Polish kings
• Russia intervenes militarily to uphold unpopular Saxon king Augusts II
• Peter the Great becomes “protector” of Poland—no change without his permission
• He imposes limit of 24,000 troops with no government subsidy on Polish army,
• Russia insisted Poland’s traditional freedoms—liberum veto, confederation, free royal elections, nobility’s monopoly over offices and over land—had to be kept
• 1717 “Silent Sejm” approves this arrangement
• 1733 Sejm bars Catholics from holding office. This provokes Prussian & Russian reaction, protecting Poland’s non-Catholics
• 1767 Confederation of Torun. Surrounded by Russian troops, nobles repeal reforms upholding “golden freedoms”
• 1768 Confederation of Bar against religious toleration
• Manipulation of Ukrainian peasants who rise up against Polish nobility. Russia intervenes to suppress nobles and then helps them to put down peasants

VIII. The Partitions

• 1^st partition

Confederation of Bar leads to first partition 1771-2. Russia, Prussia, Austria each takes a part of Poland. Poland lost 1/3 territory. Sejm ratified partition.

A. In the smaller rump Poland more reforms & ferment

• Permanent Council (cabinet) introduced
• 1773 Commission of National Education modernized curriculum; declared war on obscurantism. Graduates of new schools & colleges become supporters of enlightenment
• 1773-75 Cossack rebellion in Russia under Pugachev
• debates take place about government reform with an eye to what is going on in the American colonies, France, England.
• American Revolution (1776) and French Revolution (1789) examples.
• Tadeusz Kosciuszko fights in America and later organizes revolutionary army in Poland
• some reforms were blocked by the Sejm (with Prussian encouragement)
• Poniatowski proposes to help Russia against Turkey in return for sovereignty but is refused (1787)
• 1789 10 % tax on noble land, 20% on church land passes
• constitutional commission appointed and sejm to remain in session until new constitution in place

B. May 3 Constitution (1791)

• Retained monarchy, and privileges of nobility & church
• Ministers accountable to the sejm
• Freedom of religion
• Abolished liberum veto & confederations
• Burghers to have same rights as nobility
• Peasants protected by government
• 100,000 standing army

C. Torgowica Confederation (1792): conservative nobles oppose new constitution and          demand return of liberum veto

Russian troops come to their aid

Kosciuszko leads armed resistance but fails to stop Russians

Beginning of Polish emigration

D. 2^nd Partition

• decided by Russia and Prussia in 1792.
• takes effect 1793
• Austria gets nothing

E. 1794 Kosciuszko insurrection

• against Prussian/Russian occupiers

• some victories won
• serfdom abolished
• Armed resistance defeated.

F. 1795 3^rd partition by Austria/Prussia/Russia

Final accounting:

• Russia 61 %
• Prussia 20 %
• Austria 19%

• Partitions justified on basis of medieval claims
• Partitioners resolve Kingdom of Poland never to be mentioned

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