At the end of the nineteenth century, life expectancy in Russia was 32 years, compared to 47 years in France and the United States. By 1938 the gap had increased: life expectancy was 43 years in Russia, while in France it had reached 59 years and in the United States over 63 years.

Shkolnikov, V., Mesle, F. and Vallin J. �Health crisis in Russia: Recent trends in life expectancy and causes of death from 1970 to 1993� (Parts I and II), Population: An English Selection, Vol. 8, 1996.