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These three methods were used to identify the studies discussed in the review article (Hickey et al 2001 Epidemiologic Reviews 23(1): 115-125) and in this lecture. Not included in this review were doctorate theses, case reports, case series or ecologic studies, studies published in a language other than English or studies that while commenting on prostate cancer and smoking did not provide a formal estimate of risk or enough data to calculate one (13 controlled studies were excluded for the latter reason).